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even movement

  • 1 even movement

    even movement равномерное движение

    Англо-русский словарь Мюллера > even movement

  • 2 even movement

    Общая лексика: равномерное движение

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > even movement

  • 3 even movement

    равномерное движение

    Новый англо-русский словарь > even movement

  • 4 even

    Ⅰ
    even [ˊi:vn] n
    поэт. ве́чер
    Ⅱ
    even [ˊi:vn]
    1. a
    1) ро́вный, гла́дкий
    2) одина́ковый; тот же са́мый; схо́дный;

    even date бухг. то же число́

    3) ра́вный, на одно́м у́ровне (with);

    even with the ground вро́вень с землёй

    4) равноме́рный, разме́ренный; моното́нный;

    even movement равноме́рное движе́ние

    5) уравнове́шенный;

    even temper ро́вный, споко́йный хара́ктер

    6) справедли́вый, беспристра́стный
    7) чётный
    8) це́лый ( о числе)
    ◊

    to get ( или to be) even with smb. свести́ счёты, расквита́ться с кем-л.

    2. adv
    1) да́же;

    even if, even though да́же е́сли; хотя́ бы

    ;

    even as как раз

    ;

    even so несмотря́ на, одна́ко, хотя́, всё же

    2) как раз; то́чно
    3) уст. ро́вно
    3. v
    1) выра́внивать ( поверхность); сгла́живать
    2) равня́ть, ста́вить на одну́ до́ску
    ◊

    to even up on smb. расквита́ться с кем-л.

    Англо-русский словарь Мюллера > even

  • 5 even

    ̈ɪˈi:vən I сущ.;
    поэт.;
    архаич. вечер II
    1. прил.
    1) а) плоский, ровный (о местности) even ground ≈ плоская земля Syn: flat I
    2., plain I
    1. б) гладкий, ровный ( о поверхности) Syn: smooth
    1. в) расположенный на одном уровне
    2) а) ровный, однородный, равномерный( о действиях, процессах, состояниях и т. п.) The sky was of an even lead colour. ≈ Небо было однообразного свинцового цвета. The horses went at a steady even trot. ≈ Лошади шли спокойной, ровной рысью. the even rhythm of the breathing ≈ равномерное дыхание Syn: uniform
    2. б) уравновешенный, спокойный( о характере) His disposition was even. ≈ Он отличался ровным характером. Syn: equable, unruffled
    3) находящийся в состоянии равновесия, уравновешенный an even chance of winning ≈ равный шанс выиграть (или проиграть)
    4) равный, одинаковый, тот же самый a letter of even date ≈ письмо от того же числа
    5) рассчитавшийся, расквитавшийся I feel that I can never get quite even with him again. ≈ Я чувствую, что никогда не смогу с ним расквитаться.
    6) справедливый, честный an even exchange ≈ справедливый обмен Syn: equal
    1., fair II
    1., just I
    1., impartial
    7) четный Ant: odd
    1.
    8) точный, целый, круглый( о числах, суммах) Syn: exact, precise
    2. нареч.
    1) (эмоц.-усил.) а) даже He looked content, even happy. ≈ Он выглядел довольным, даже счастливым. so simple even a child can do it ≈ такой простой, что даже ребенок сможет это сделать Didn't even try. ≈ Даже не пытайся. I can't come to a decision about it now or even give any indication of my own views. ≈ Я пока не могу прийти ни к какому решению и даже не могу сказать, что я думаю об этом. б) даже еще (при сравнении) He did even better. ≈ Он сделал это даже еще лучше. During his second day Edward looked even more pale and quiet than on his first. ≈ На второй день Эдвард был еще более бледным и молчаливым, чем в первый день.
    2) точно, ровно, как раз Syn: exactly, precisely ∙ even as even if even so even though
    3. гл.
    1) а) ровнять, выравнивать, сглаживать (тж. even off, even out) The ground evens out on the other side of the mountain ≈ На другой стороне горы начинается равнина. Prices should even off when the crops are gathered. ≈ Цены скоро выровняются, когда соберут урожай. We must even out the differences between social classes. ≈ Нужно сгладить разницу между социальными группами. б) выравниваться Things were beginning to even out a little. ≈ Ситуация начала потихоньку выправляться.
    2) уравнивать, уравновешивать (тж. even up) If you two sit at the other table, that should even up the groups. ≈ Если вы двое сядете на другой стороне стола, это уравновесит группы. He now had a wonderful chance to even old scores. ≈ У него оказался прекрасный шанс свести старые счеты. to even up on smb. ≈ рассчитаться с кем-л. Syn: balance
    2. (устаревшее) вечер;
    склон дня четное число - * or odd? чет или нечет? целое число ровный, гладкий - to make * подравнивать, выравнивать (поверхность) ;
    сглаживать - * ground (военное) слабопересеченная местность ровный, равномерный - * breathing ровное дыхание - * development равномерное развитие - * running спокойный ход (машины) - * temperature ровная температура - * trot мерная рысь - * voice монотонный голос - * load (специальное) равномерная нагрузка равный, одинаковый;
    такой же, тот же - * stress (фонетика) два ударения равной силы (в слове) - * bet пари с равными шансами - * break (американизм) равные шансы - a letter of * date (юридическое) (коммерческое) письмо от того же числа - to divide into * shares делить поровну - to break * остаться при своих( в игре) ;
    (коммерческое) окончиться безубыточно;
    покрыть свои расходы - they meet on * ground их силы равны, никто из них не имеет перевеса на одном уровне, вровень - * with the pavement вровень с тротуаром - snow * with the eaves снег до самых стрех - to make * with the ground сровнять с землей параллельный уравновешенный - * temper спокойный характер - * scale равновесие - the two scales hang * чаши весов находятся в равновесии расквитавшийся, рассчитавшийся - to be * свести счеты, расквитаться - we will not be * until you repay my visit вы будете моим должником до тех пор, пока не отдадите мне визит справедливый, честный - * bargain честная сделка - an * exchange равноценный обмен четный - * number четное число - * number (полиграфия) четная колонцифра - the * pages of a book четные страницы книги - evenly * кратный четырем( о числе) - oddly * кратный двум, но не кратный четырем ( о числе) целый (о числе) точный - * mile ровно миля - * dozen точно дюжина( полиграфия) весь - * caps слово, набранное прописными буквами - * smalls слово, набранное строчными буквами > at * (финансовое) без процентов > * reckoning makes lasting friends (пословица) честный расчет укрепляет дружбу;
    счет дружбе не помеха даже - * if даже если, хотя бы и - * if I knew даже если бы я знал - * if they asked for it хотя бы они и просили это - * though хотя бы, даром что - he went * though we wanted him он уехал, хотя он нам и был нужен - they agreed * though I warned them они согласились, даром что я их предупреждал - * now даже теперь - * so даже при этих условиях, даже в таком случае - * so the difficulties would be unsurmountable даже в этом случае трудности будут непреодолимыми еще (при сравнении) - * worse даже хуже - * more interesting еще интереснее (усилительно) как раз - * as he spoke, it began to rain как раз когда он говорил, пошел дождь точно, именно - this is * so это именно так;
    это совершенно верно - * thus как раз таким образом - * unto death the edge of doom до (самой) гробовой доски( полиграфия) в подбор - to begin * начинать в подбор;
    набирать без абзаца - to end * разогнать строку до поля выравнивать, сглаживать, делать ровным, гладким - to * with the soil сровнять с землей выравниваться - after Bristol the road will * out после Бристоля дорога будет ровнее - the racing odds *ed before the race шансы на выигрыш уравнялись еще до начала скачек преим. (американизм) (шотландское) равнять, приравнивать, ставить на одну доску;
    делать или считать равными - to * Homer and Dante приравнивать Гомера к Данте, считать Гомера и Данте равными (экономика) уравнять;
    нивелировать - to * an account( бухгалтерское) уравнять счет - to * incomes нивелировать доходы( американизм) отплатить, отомстить - to * on smb. расквитаться с кем-либо ~ даже;
    even if, even though даже если;
    хотя бы;
    even as как раз ~ равный, на одном уровне (with) ;
    одинаковый;
    тот же самый;
    сходный;
    even with the ground вровень с землей;
    even date бухг. то же число ~ даже;
    even if, even though даже если;
    хотя бы;
    even as как раз ~ однообразный, монотонный;
    равномерный;
    even movement равномерное движение ~ уравновешенный;
    even temper ровный, спокойный характер ~ даже;
    even if, even though даже если;
    хотя бы;
    even as как раз ~ уравновешивать (тж. even up) ;
    to even up (on smb.) расквитаться, рассчитаться (с кем-л.) ~ равный, на одном уровне (with) ;
    одинаковый;
    тот же самый;
    сходный;
    even with the ground вровень с землей;
    even date бухг. то же число ~ четный;
    evenly even кратный четырем (о числе) ;
    oddly (или unevenly) even кратный двум, но не кратный четырем (о числе) to get (или to be) ~ (with smb.) свести счеты, расквитаться (с кем-л.) ~ четный;
    evenly even кратный четырем (о числе) ;
    oddly (или unevenly) even кратный двум, но не кратный четырем (о числе)

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > even

  • 6 even

    [̈ɪˈi:vən]
    even даже; even if, even though даже если; хотя бы; even as как раз even равный, на одном уровне (with); одинаковый; тот же самый; сходный; even with the ground вровень с землей; even date бухг. то же число even даже; even if, even though даже если; хотя бы; even as как раз even однообразный, монотонный; равномерный; even movement равномерное движение even уравновешенный; even temper ровный, спокойный характер even даже; even if, even though даже если; хотя бы; even as как раз even уравновешивать (тж. even up); to even up (on smb.) расквитаться, рассчитаться (с кем-л.) even равный, на одном уровне (with); одинаковый; тот же самый; сходный; even with the ground вровень с землей; even date бухг. то же число even четный; evenly even кратный четырем (о числе); oddly (или unevenly) even кратный двум, но не кратный четырем (о числе) to get (или to be) even (with smb.) свести счеты, расквитаться (с кем-л.) even четный; evenly even кратный четырем (о числе); oddly (или unevenly) even кратный двум, но не кратный четырем (о числе)

    English-Russian short dictionary > even

  • 7 even

    I
    noun poet.
    вечер
    II
    1. adjective
    1) ровный, гладкий
    2) равный, на одном уровне (with); одинаковый; тот же самый; сходный; even with the ground вровень с землей; even date account. то же число
    3) однообразный, монотонный; равномерный; even movement равномерное движение
    4) уравновешенный; even temper ровный, спокойный характер
    5) справедливый, беспристрастный
    6) четный; evenly even кратный четырем (о числе); oddly (или unevenly) even кратный двум, но не кратный четырем (о числе)
    to get (или to be) even with smb. свести счеты, расквитаться с кем-л.
    2. adverb
    1) ровно
    2) как раз; точно
    3) даже; even if, even though даже если; хотя бы; even as как раз
    3. verb
    1) выравнивать (поверхность); сглаживать
    2) равнять, ставить на одну доску
    3) уравновешивать (тж. even up)
    to even up on smb. расквитаться, рассчитаться с кем-л.
    * * *
    1 (a) ровный
    2 (c) даже и
    3 (d) даже; еще
    * * *
    1) ровный; 2) даже
    * * *
    [e·ven || 'iːvn] v. выравнивать adj. ровный, гладкий; равномерный, равный, одинаковый, сходный, тот же самый; на одном уровне, уравновешенный; размеренный, однообразный, монотонный; справедливый, беспристрастный; четный adv. точно, даже, как раз; ровно; гладкий (о поверхности)
    * * *
    беспристрастный
    выравнивать
    гладкий
    даже
    монотонный
    одинаковый
    однообразный
    параллельный
    парный
    плоский
    равномерен
    равномерный
    равный
    равнять
    ровен
    ровно
    ровный
    сглаживать
    справедливый
    сходный
    точно
    уравновешенный
    целый
    четный
    * * *
    эвенский, ламутский язык

    Новый англо-русский словарь > even

  • 8 healing cult (Religious group or movement that places major, or even exclusive, emphasis on the treatment or prevention by nonmedical means of physical or spiritual ailments, which are often seen as manifestations of evil)

    Религия: хилерский культ

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > healing cult (Religious group or movement that places major, or even exclusive, emphasis on the treatment or prevention by nonmedical means of physical or spiritual ailments, which are often seen as manifestations of evil)

  • 9 e'en

    поэт.;
    см. even I и even II
    2. даже - * if даже если, хотя бы и - * if I knew даже если бы я знал - * if they asked for it хотя бы они и просили это - * though хотя бы, даром что - he went * though we wanted him он уехал, хотя он нам и был нужен - they agreed * though I warned them они согласились, даром что я их предупреждал еще (при сравнении) - * worse даже хуже - * more interesting еще интереснее (усилительно) как раз - * as he spoke, it began to rain как раз когда он говорил, пошел дождь точно, именно - this is * so это именно так;
    это совершенно верно - * thus как раз таким образом - * unto death the edge of doom до (самой) гробовой доски e'en поэт. см. even e'en поэт. см. even even: even поэт. вечер ~ выравнивать (поверхность) ;
    сглаживать ~ выравнивать ~ даже;
    even if, even though даже если;
    хотя бы;
    even as как раз ~ как раз;
    точно ~ нивелировать доходы ~ однообразный, монотонный;
    равномерный;
    even movement равномерное движение ~ равномерный ~ равный, на одном уровне( with) ;
    одинаковый;
    тот же самый;
    сходный;
    even with the ground вровень с землей;
    even date бухг. то же число ~ равнять, ставить на одну доску ~ ровно ~ ровный, гладкий ~ ровный ~ сглаживать различия ~ справедливый, беспристрастный ~ справедливый ~ уравновешенный;
    even temper ровный, спокойный характер ~ уравновешивать (тж. even up) ;
    to even up (on smb.) расквитаться, рассчитаться( с кем-л.) ~ честный ~ четный ~ четный;
    evenly even кратный четырем( о числе) ;
    oddly( или unevenly) even кратный двум, но не кратный четырем ( о числе)

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > e'en

  • 10 e'en

    e'en поэт. см. even e'en поэт. см. even even: even поэт. вечер e'en выравнивать (поверхность); сглаживать e'en выравнивать e'en даже; even if, even though даже если; хотя бы; even as как раз e'en как раз; точно e'en нивелировать доходы e'en однообразный, монотонный; равномерный; even movement равномерное движение e'en равномерный e'en равный, на одном уровне (with); одинаковый; тот же самый; сходный; even with the ground вровень с землей; even date бухг. то же число e'en равнять, ставить на одну доску e'en ровно e'en ровный, гладкий e'en ровный e'en сглаживать различия e'en справедливый, беспристрастный e'en справедливый e'en уравновешенный; even temper ровный, спокойный характер e'en уравновешивать (тж. even up); to even up (on smb.) расквитаться, рассчитаться (с кем-л.) e'en честный e'en четный e'en четный; evenly even кратный четырем (о числе); oddly (или unevenly) even кратный двум, но не кратный четырем (о числе)

    English-Russian short dictionary > e'en

  • 11 clean

    kli:n
    1. adjective
    1) (free from dirt, smoke etc: a clean window; a clean dress.) limpio
    2) (neat and tidy in one's habits: Cats are very clean animals.) limpio
    3) (unused: a clean sheet of paper.) nuevo, en blanco
    4) (free from evil or indecency: a clean life; keep your language clean!) puro
    5) (neat and even: a clean cut.) neto, bien definido; preciso

    2. adverb
    (completely: He got clean away.) por completo

    3. verb
    (to (cause to) become free from dirt etc: Will you clean the windows?) limpiar

    (clean in personal habits.) limpio

    - clean up
    - a clean bill of health
    - a clean slate
    - come clean
    - make a clean sweep
    clean1 adj limpio
    your shirt is dirty, put a clean one on tu camisa está sucia, ponte una limpia
    clean2 vb limpiar
    the floor is dirty, clean it! el suelo está sucio, ¡límpialo!
    tr[kliːn]
    1 (not dirty - gen) limpio,-a; (air) limpio,-a, puro,-a; (sheet of paper) nuevo,-a, en blanco
    2 (not rude - gen) decente; (joke) inocente; (life) sano,-a; (match, fight) limpio,-a
    3 (well-formed) bien definido,-a, nítido,-a; (regular, even) limpio,-a
    1 (fight, play) limpio, limpiamente
    2 familiar (completely) por completo
    1 limpieza
    1 (gen) limpiar; (teeth, car) lavar
    ■ have you cleaned your teeth? ¿te has lavado los dientes?
    ■ will you clean these marks off the wall? ¿quieres quitar estas marcas de la pared?
    1 limpiarse
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    as clean as a new pin limpio,-a como una patena
    to have a clean (driving) licence no hacer cometido infracciones (de tráfico)
    to have a clean record SMALLLAW/SMALL no tener antecedentes penales
    to have a clean slate tener un historial sin mancha
    to have something cleaned (dry-cleaned) llevar algo a la tintorería, hacer limpiar algo en seco
    to give somebody a clean bill of health declarar a alguien en perfecto estado de salud
    to make a clean break cortar por lo sano
    to make a clean break with something cortar con algo, romper con algo
    to start with a clean sheet hacer borrón y cuenta nueva
    clean ['kli:n] vt
    : limpiar, lavar, asear
    clean adv
    : limpio, limpiamente
    to play clean: jugar limpio
    clean adj
    1) : limpio
    2) unadulterated: puro
    3) irreproachable: intachable, sin mancha
    to have a clean record: no tener antecedentes penales
    4) decent: decente
    5) complete: completo, absoluto
    a clean break with the past: un corte radical con el pasado
    adj.
    • aseado, -a adj.
    • distinto, -a adj.
    • limpio, -a adj.
    • lirondo, -a adj.
    • mondo, -a adj.
    • neto, -a adj.
    • perfecto, -a adj.
    v.
    • afretar v.
    • escombrar v.
    • esmerar v.
    • limpiar v.
    • mondar v.

    I kliːn
    adjective -er, -est
    1)
    a) ( not soiled) limpio

    are your hands clean? — ¿tienes las manos limpias?

    b) ( not used) <clothes/towel> limpio
    c) (pure, non-polluting) <air/water> limpio, puro; < smell> a limpio; < taste> refrescante
    2)
    a) ( morally) < joke> inocente
    b) ( fair) <game/player> limpio
    3) ( unblemished) < driver's license> donde no constan infracciones

    to come clean about something — (colloq) confesar* algo

    4) ( well defined) <stroke/features> bien definido, nítido

    II
    adverb (colloq)
    b) ( fairly) <fight/play> limpio, limpiamente

    III
    1.
    a) ( remove dirt from) limpiar; \<\<blackboard\>\> borrar, limpiar

    to clean something OFF something: he cleaned the splashes off the windows — limpió las salpicaduras que había en las ventanas

    b) ( dry-clean) limpiar en seco, llevar a la tintorería
    c) \<\<fish/chicken\>\> limpiar

    2.
    vi ( remove dirt) \<\<substance/device\>\> limpiar
    Phrasal Verbs:

    IV
    noun (colloq) (no pl) limpieza f
    [kliːn]
    1. ADJ
    (compar cleaner) (superl cleanest)
    1) (=not dirty) [clothes, sheets, floor, face] limpio; [air, water] limpio, puro

    • to come clean — (lit) quedar limpio; (fig) * confesarlo todo

    • to have clean hands — (lit, fig) tener las manos limpias

    • to wipe sth clean — limpiar algo

    - make a clean breast of it
    - make a clean sweep

    to make a clean sweep of sth — (of prizes, awards) arrasar con algo

    to make a clean sweep of the votes — acaparar todos los votos, barrer

    2) (=fresh) [smell] a limpio; [taste] refrescante
    3) (=new, unused) [sheet of paper, page] en blanco, en limpio
    4) (=not indecent) [joke] inocente; [film, life] decente

    keep it clean! — ¡no seas indecente!

    clean living — vida f sana

    5) (=smooth, even) [movement] fluido; [shot] certero; [cut] limpio; [sound] nítido, claro; [features, outline] nítido, bien definido

    a clean break — (Med) una fractura limpia

    6) (=fair) [fight, game, match] limpio; [player] que juega limpio
    7) (=untarnished) [image, reputation] bueno, impecable

    • to have a clean record — (gen) tener un historial limpio; (no criminal record) no tener antecedentes penales

    8) (=environmentally friendly) [machine, substance, energy] no contaminante
    9) (Nuclear physics) (=uncontaminated) [area, person, object] no contaminado
    10) (=ritually pure) [animal] puro
    11) (=trouble-free) [operation, job, getaway] sin problemas
    12) ** (=innocent)

    they can't touch me, I'm clean — no me pueden hacer nada, tengo las manos limpias *

    13) ** (=not in possession of drugs, weapon, stolen property)
    2. ADV
    1) * (=completely)
    2) (=fairly)

    to fight/play clean — luchar/jugar limpio

    3.
    N limpieza f, aseo m (LAm); (=wash) lavado m
    4.
    VT [+ room, carpet, windows, shoes] limpiar; [+ vegetables, clothes] lavar; [+ car] lavar, limpiar; [+ blackboard] borrar; [+ wound, cut] desinfectar
    5. VI
    2) (=be cleaned)
    * * *

    I [kliːn]
    adjective -er, -est
    1)
    a) ( not soiled) limpio

    are your hands clean? — ¿tienes las manos limpias?

    b) ( not used) <clothes/towel> limpio
    c) (pure, non-polluting) <air/water> limpio, puro; < smell> a limpio; < taste> refrescante
    2)
    a) ( morally) < joke> inocente
    b) ( fair) <game/player> limpio
    3) ( unblemished) < driver's license> donde no constan infracciones

    to come clean about something — (colloq) confesar* algo

    4) ( well defined) <stroke/features> bien definido, nítido

    II
    adverb (colloq)
    b) ( fairly) <fight/play> limpio, limpiamente

    III
    1.
    a) ( remove dirt from) limpiar; \<\<blackboard\>\> borrar, limpiar

    to clean something OFF something: he cleaned the splashes off the windows — limpió las salpicaduras que había en las ventanas

    b) ( dry-clean) limpiar en seco, llevar a la tintorería
    c) \<\<fish/chicken\>\> limpiar

    2.
    vi ( remove dirt) \<\<substance/device\>\> limpiar
    Phrasal Verbs:

    IV
    noun (colloq) (no pl) limpieza f

    English-spanish dictionary > clean

  • 12 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 13 begin

    1. transitive verb,
    -nn-, began, begun

    begin something — [mit] etwas beginnen

    begin school — in die Schule kommen

    begin doing or to do something — anfangen od. beginnen, etwas zu tun

    I am beginning to get annoyed — so langsam werde ich ärgerlich

    2. intransitive verb
    -nn-, began, begun anfangen; beginnen (oft geh.)

    begin with something/somebody — bei od. mit etwas/jemandem anfangen od. beginnen

    to begin with — zunächst od. zuerst einmal

    it is the wrong book, to begin with — das ist schon einmal das falsche Buch

    * * *
    [bi'ɡin]
    present participle - beginning; verb
    (to come or bring, into being, to start: He began to talk; The meeting began early.) anfangen
    - academic.ru/6259/beginning">beginning
    - beginner
    - to begin with
    * * *
    be·gin
    <-nn-, began, begun>
    [bɪˈgɪn]
    I. vt
    ▪ to \begin sth etw anfangen [o beginnen]
    he began his career as a humble office worker er hat als kleiner Büroangestellter angefangen
    I began this book two months ago ich habe mit diesem Buch vor zwei Monaten angefangen
    to \begin a conversation ein Gespräch beginnen
    to \begin school in die Schule kommen
    to \begin work mit der Arbeit beginnen
    ▪ to \begin doing [or to do] sth beginnen [o anfangen], etw zu tun
    she began acting at fifteen sie fing mit fünfzehn mit der Schauspielerei an
    I began to think he'd never come ich dachte schon, er würde nie kommen
    he didn't even \begin to answer my questions er hat keinerlei Anstalten gemacht, meine Fragen zu beantworten
    he does not even \begin to try er versucht es nicht einmal
    it doesn't \begin to do him justice es wird ihm nicht [einmal] annähernd gerecht
    I can't \begin to explain how this could happen es ist mir selbst unerklärlich, wie das passieren konnte
    she was \beginning to get angry sie wurde allmählich [o langsam] wütend
    it's \beginning to rain/snow impers es fängt an zu regnen/schneien
    to \begin to roll/stutter ins Rollen/Stottern kommen
    2. (start using)
    ▪ to \begin sth mit etw dat beginnen [o anfangen]
    to \begin a bottle eine Flasche anbrechen
    to \begin a new loaf of bread ein neues Brot anschneiden
    to \begin a new page eine neue Seite anfangen
    ▪ to \begin sth mit etw dat beginnen [o anfangen]
    to \begin a fashion/trend eine Mode/einen Trend ins Leben rufen
    4. (start by saying)
    ▪ to \begin sth:
    “let me introduce myself,” she began „darf ich mich vorstellen?“ begann sie
    II. vi
    1. (commence) anfangen, beginnen
    let's \begin fangen wir an!
    I'll \begin by welcoming our guests zuerst werde ich unsere Gäste begrüßen
    she began on the piano at five sie hat mit fünf angefangen Klavier zu spielen
    it all began when she left us alles fing damit an, dass sie uns verließ
    I don't know where to \begin ich weiß nicht, wo ich anfangen soll!
    before school \begins vor Schulanfang
    the play \begins with the sisters in the kitchen together am Anfang des Stücks sitzen die Schwestern zusammen in der Küche
    \beginning from September 1 ab dem ersten September
    to \begin again neu anfangen
    ▪ to \begin with (before anything)
    to \begin with, I want to thank you for everything zunächst einmal möchte ich mich für alles bedanken; (initially)
    there were six of us to \begin with anfangs waren wir noch zu sechst; (for one)
    to \begin with, the room is too small, then it faces a busy road erstens ist das Zimmer zu klein, [und] dann liegt es auch noch an einer verkehrsreichen Straße
    ▪ to \begin on sth mit etw dat beginnen [o anfangen
    2. (open speech act) beginnen, anfangen
    he began by saying... zunächst einmal sagte er...
    3. (originate) beginnen, anfangen; river entspringen
    where does this road \begin? wo fängt diese Straße an?
    4.
    ▶ life \begins at forty ( saying) mit vierzig fängt das Leben erst [richtig] an
    * * *
    [bI'gɪn] pret began, ptp begun
    1. vt
    1) (= start) beginnen, anfangen; conversation also anknüpfen; song also anstimmen; bottle anbrechen, anfangen; book, letter, new cheque book, new page anfangen; rehearsals, work anfangen mit; task in Angriff nehmen, sich machen an (+acc)

    to begin to do sth or doing sth — anfangen or beginnen, etw zu tun

    when did you begin ( learning or to learn) English? — wann haben Sie angefangen, Englisch zu lernen?

    he began his speech by saying that... — er leitete seine Rede damit or mit den Worten ein, dass...

    to begin school — eingeschult werden, in die Schule kommen

    to begin life as a... — als... anfangen or beginnen

    she's beginning to understand — sie fängt langsam an zu verstehen, sie versteht so langsam

    I'd begun to think you weren't coming — ich habe schon gedacht, du kommst nicht mehr

    that doesn't even begin to compare with... —

    I can't begin to thank you for what you've done — ich kann Ihnen gar nicht genug dafür danken, was Sie getan haben

    2) (= initiate, originate) anfangen; fashion, custom, policy einführen; society, firm, movement gründen; (= cause) war auslösen
    3) (= start to speak) beginnen, anfangen

    it's late, he began — es ist spät, begann er or fing or hub (old) er an

    2. vi
    1) (= start) anfangen, beginnen; (new play etc) anlaufen

    he began by saying that... —

    where the hair begins — am Haaransatz

    to begin in business — ins Geschäftsleben eintreten; (as self-employed) ein Geschäft aufmachen

    beginning from Monday — ab Montag, von Montag an

    it all/the trouble began when... — es fing alles/der Ärger fing damit an, dass...

    to begin with sb/sth —

    to begin with, this is wrong, and... — erstens einmal ist das falsch, dann...

    to begin on a new venture/project — ein neues Unternehmen/Projekt in Angriff nehmen

    2) (= come into being) beginnen, anfangen; (custom) entstehen; (river) entspringen
    * * *
    begin [bıˈɡın] prät began [-ˈɡæn], pperf begun [-ˈɡʌn]
    A v/t
    1. beginnen, anfangen:
    when did you begin ( to learn oder learning) English? wann hast du mit Englisch angefangen (angefangen, Englisch zu lernen)?;
    he began his lecture by saying that … er leitete seinen Vortrag mit den Worten ein, dass …;
    begin the world ins Leben treten
    2. eine Dynastie etc (be)gründen
    B v/i
    1. beginnen, anfangen:
    he began by saying that … er sagte einleitend, dass …;
    begin with sth (sb) mit etwas (bei jemandem) anfangen;
    to begin with (Redew)
    a) zunächst (einmal), fürs Erste,
    b) erstens (einmal), um es gleich zu sagen;
    begin on sth etwas in Angriff nehmen;
    begin on a new bottle eine neue Flasche anbrechen;
    not begin to do sth nicht entfernt oder im Entferntesten daran denken, etwas zu tun;
    he does not even begin to try er versucht es nicht einmal;
    it began to be put into practice es wurde langsam aber sicher in die Praxis umgesetzt;
    well begun is half done (Sprichwort) gut begonnen ist halb gewonnen
    2. entstehen, ins Leben gerufen werden
    * * *
    1. transitive verb,
    -nn-, began, begun

    begin something — [mit] etwas beginnen

    begin doing or to do something — anfangen od. beginnen, etwas zu tun

    2. intransitive verb
    -nn-, began, begun anfangen; beginnen (oft geh.)

    begin with something/somebody — bei od. mit etwas/jemandem anfangen od. beginnen

    to begin with — zunächst od. zuerst einmal

    it is the wrong book, to begin with — das ist schon einmal das falsche Buch

    * * *
    v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: began, begun)
    = anfangen v.
    beginnen v.
    (§ p.,pp.: begann, begonnen)

    English-german dictionary > begin

  • 14 smooth

    I [smuːð]
    1) (even) [stone, sea, skin, fabric] liscio; [ road] piano; [curve, line, breathing] regolare; [ sauce] omogeneo; [ movement] agevole, sciolto
    2) fig. (problem-free) [journey, flight, life] tranquillo, senza intoppi
    3) (pleasant) [taste, wine] amabile, rotondo
    4) (suave) spreg. [ person] mellifluo; [manners, appearance] untuoso
    ••

    the course of true love never did run smooth — = l'amore vero non è mai privo di difficoltà

    II [smuːð]
    1) (flatten out) lisciare [paper, hair, surface]; (get creases out) togliere le pieghe a, stirare [ fabric]
    2) fig. (make easier) facilitare [ process]; spianare [ path]
    •
    * * *
    [smu:ð] 1. adjective
    1) (having an even surface; not rough: Her skin is as smooth as satin.) liscio
    2) (without lumps: Mix the ingredients to a smooth paste.) omogeneo
    3) ((of movement) without breaks, stops or jolts: Did you have a smooth flight from New York?) tranquillo
    4) (without problems or difficulties: a smooth journey; His progress towards promotion was smooth and rapid.) facile; tranquillo
    5) ((too) agreeable and pleasant in manner etc: I don't trust those smooth salesmen.) sdolcinato, mellifluo
    2. verb
    1) ((often with down, out etc) to make (something) smooth or flat: She tried to smooth the creases out.) appianare
    2) ((with into or over): to rub (a liquid substance etc) gently over (a surface): Smooth the moisturizing cream into/over your face and neck.) stendere
    •
    - smoothly
    - smoothness
    * * *
    I [smuːð]
    1) (even) [stone, sea, skin, fabric] liscio; [ road] piano; [curve, line, breathing] regolare; [ sauce] omogeneo; [ movement] agevole, sciolto
    2) fig. (problem-free) [journey, flight, life] tranquillo, senza intoppi
    3) (pleasant) [taste, wine] amabile, rotondo
    4) (suave) spreg. [ person] mellifluo; [manners, appearance] untuoso
    ••

    the course of true love never did run smooth — = l'amore vero non è mai privo di difficoltà

    II [smuːð]
    1) (flatten out) lisciare [paper, hair, surface]; (get creases out) togliere le pieghe a, stirare [ fabric]
    2) fig. (make easier) facilitare [ process]; spianare [ path]
    •

    English-Italian dictionary > smooth

  • 15 stroke

    [strəuk] I noun
    1) (an act of hitting, or the blow given: He felled the tree with one stroke of the axe; the stroke of a whip.) slag
    2) (a sudden occurrence of something: a stroke of lightning; an unfortunate stroke of fate; What a stroke of luck to find that money!) lynnedslag; skæbnetilfælde; lykketræf
    3) (the sound made by a clock striking the hour: She arrived on the stroke of (= punctually at) ten.) slag
    4) (a movement or mark made in one direction by a pen, pencil, paintbrush etc: short, even pencil strokes.) strøg
    5) (a single pull of an oar in rowing, or a hit with the bat in playing cricket.) slag
    6) (a movement of the arms and legs in swimming, or a particular method of swimming: He swam with slow, strong strokes; Can you do breaststroke/backstroke?) tag; svømning; -svømning
    7) (an effort or action: I haven't done a stroke (of work) all day.) pind
    8) (a sudden attack of illness which damages the brain, causing paralysis, loss of feeling in the body etc.) hjerneblødning; slagtilfælde
    •
    II 1. verb
    (to rub (eg a furry animal) gently and repeatedly in one direction, especially as a sign of affection: He stroked the cat / her hair; The dog loves being stroked.) stryge
    2. noun
    (an act of stroking: He gave the dog a stroke.) kærtegn; aen
    * * *
    [strəuk] I noun
    1) (an act of hitting, or the blow given: He felled the tree with one stroke of the axe; the stroke of a whip.) slag
    2) (a sudden occurrence of something: a stroke of lightning; an unfortunate stroke of fate; What a stroke of luck to find that money!) lynnedslag; skæbnetilfælde; lykketræf
    3) (the sound made by a clock striking the hour: She arrived on the stroke of (= punctually at) ten.) slag
    4) (a movement or mark made in one direction by a pen, pencil, paintbrush etc: short, even pencil strokes.) strøg
    5) (a single pull of an oar in rowing, or a hit with the bat in playing cricket.) slag
    6) (a movement of the arms and legs in swimming, or a particular method of swimming: He swam with slow, strong strokes; Can you do breaststroke/backstroke?) tag; svømning; -svømning
    7) (an effort or action: I haven't done a stroke (of work) all day.) pind
    8) (a sudden attack of illness which damages the brain, causing paralysis, loss of feeling in the body etc.) hjerneblødning; slagtilfælde
    •
    II 1. verb
    (to rub (eg a furry animal) gently and repeatedly in one direction, especially as a sign of affection: He stroked the cat / her hair; The dog loves being stroked.) stryge
    2. noun
    (an act of stroking: He gave the dog a stroke.) kærtegn; aen

    English-Danish dictionary > stroke

  • 16 still

    I 1. adjective
    1) pred. still

    be still — [still] stehen; [Fahne:] sich nicht bewegen; [Hand:] ruhig sein

    hold or keep something still — etwas ruhig halten

    hold or keep a ladder/horse still — eine Leiter/ein Pferd festhalten

    hold still! — halt still!

    keep or stay still — stillhalten; (not change posture) ruhig bleiben; [Pferd:] stillstehen; [Gegenstand:] liegen bleiben

    stand still — stillstehen; [Uhr:] stehen; [Arbeit:] ruhen; (stop) stehen bleiben

    2) (calm) ruhig
    3) (without sound) still; ruhig
    4) (not sparkling) nicht moussierend [Wein]; still [Mineralwasser]
    5) (hushed) leise
    2. adverb
    1) (without change) noch; (expr. surprise or annoyance) immer noch

    drink your tea while it is still hot — trink deinen Tee, solange er [noch] heiß ist

    2) (nevertheless) trotzdem

    still, what can you do about it? — aber was kann man dagegen tun?

    3) with comparative (even) noch

    become fatter still or still fatter — noch od. immer dicker werden

    better/worse still — as sentence-modifier besser/schlimmer noch

    3. noun
    (Photog.) Fotografie, die
    II noun
    Destillierapparat, der
    * * *
    I 1. [stil] adjective
    1) (without movement or noise: The city seems very still in the early morning; Please stand/sit/keep/hold still while I brush your hair!; still (= calm) water/weather.) still
    2) ((of drinks) not fizzy: still orange juice.) nicht schäumend
    2. noun
    (a photograph selected from a cinema film: The magazine contained some stills from the new film.) die Einzelaufnahme
    - academic.ru/70778/stillness">stillness
    - stillborn II [stil] adverb
    1) (up to and including the present time, or the time mentioned previously: Are you still working for the same firm?; By Saturday he had still not / still hadn't replied to my letter.) (immer) noch
    2) (nevertheless; in spite of that: Although the doctor told him to rest, he still went on working; This picture is not valuable - still, I like it.) dennoch
    3) (even: He seemed very ill in the afternoon and in the evening looked still worse.) noch
    * * *
    still1
    [stɪl]
    I. n
    1. no pl (peace and quiet) Stille f
    in the \still of the night in der Stille der Nacht
    2. usu pl (photo of film scene) Standfoto nt; (single frame) Einzelaufnahme f
    II. adj
    1. (quiet and peaceful) ruhig, friedlich; lake, sea ruhig; air windstill
    2. (motionless) reglos, bewegungslos
    \still photo Standfoto nt
    to be \still as a statue regungslos wie eine Statue sein
    to keep \still stillhalten, sich akk nicht bewegen
    to keep \still about sth ( fig) über etw akk schweigen
    to sit/stand \still stillsitzen/stillstehen
    3. inv (not fizzy) drink ohne Kohlensäure nach n; mineral water still, ohne Kohlensäure nach n; wine nicht moussierend
    4.
    ▶ a \still small voice ein leises Stimmchen
    ▶ \still waters run deep ( prov) stille Wasser sind tief prov
    III. vt
    ▪ to \still sb jdn zur Ruhe bringen
    ▪ to \still sth etw zum Stillstand bringen
    to \still sb's doubts/fears/worries jdm seine Ängste/Zweifel/Bedenken nehmen
    to \still public anxiety about sth die allgemeine Besorgnis über etw akk zerstreuen
    to \still sb's complaining/protests jds Beschwerden/Proteste zum Verstummen bringen
    she cuddled her baby to \still its cries sie knuddelte ihr Baby, damit es aufhörte zu schreien
    still2
    [stɪl]
    adv inv
    1. (continuing situation) [immer] noch, noch immer; (in future as in past) nach wie vor
    I'm \still hungry ich habe immer noch Hunger
    we've \still got some wine left over from the party wir haben von dem Fest noch ein paar Flaschen Wein übrig
    there's \still time for us to get to the cinema before the film starts wir können es noch schaffen, ins Kino zu kommen, bevor der Film anfängt
    to be \still alive noch leben [o am Leben sein]
    to be \still possible immer noch möglich sein
    2. (nevertheless) trotzdem
    I know you don't like her but you \still don't have to be so rude to her ich weiß, du kannst sie nicht leiden, aber deswegen brauchst du nicht gleich so unhöflich zu ihr zu sein
    ..., but he's \still your brother... er ist immer noch dein Bruder
    even though she hasn't really got the time, she \still offered to help obwohl sie eigentlich gar keine Zeit hat, hat sie dennoch angeboten zu helfen
    \still and all esp AM [und] dennoch [o doch
    3. (greater degree) noch
    \still further/higher/more noch weiter/höher/mehr
    to want \still more immer noch mehr wollen
    better/worse \still noch besser/schlimmer, besser/schlimmer noch
    I'll meet you at the theatre — no, better \still, let's meet in a pub ich treffe dich im Theater — oder nein, treffen wir uns besser in einem Pub
    still3
    [stɪl]
    n
    1. (distillery) Brennerei f
    moonshine/whisky \still Schwarz-/Whiskybrennerei f
    illicit \still Schwarzbrennerei f, illegale Brennerei
    2. (appliance) Destillierapparat m
    * * *
    I [stɪl]
    1. adj, adv (+er)
    1) (= motionless) bewegungslos; person bewegungs- or reglos; sea, waters ruhig

    to keep still — stillhalten, sich nicht bewegen

    to stand/sit still — still stehen/sitzen

    2) (= quiet, calm) still

    be still! (US) —

    2. adj
    wine nicht moussierend; drink ohne Kohlensäure
    3. n
    1) Stille f

    in the still of the night — in der nächtlichen Stille, in der Stille der Nacht

    2) (FILM) Standfoto nt
    4. vt
    (liter: calm) beruhigen; anger besänftigen; sounds zum Verstummen bringen; passion, pain abklingen lassen, stillen
    5. vi
    sich legen II
    1. adv
    1) (temporal) noch; (for emphasis, in exasperation, used on its own) immer noch; (in negative sentences) noch immer, immer noch; (= now as in the past) nach wie vor

    is he still coming? —

    she is still in the office (with emphasis) — sie ist noch im Büro sie ist immer noch im Büro

    do you mean you still don't believe me? — willst du damit sagen, dass du mir immer noch nicht or noch immer nicht glaubst?

    there are ten weeks still to go —

    there will still be objections, no matter... — es wird nach wie vor Einwände geben, egal...

    2) (esp US inf = nevertheless, all the same) trotzdem

    still, it was worth it — es hat sich trotzdem gelohnt

    still, he's not a bad person — na ja, er ist eigentlich kein schlechter Mensch

    still, he is my brother — er ist trotz allem mein Bruder

    rich but still not happy —

    still, at least we didn't lose anything — na ja, wir haben wenigstens nichts dabei verloren

    still, what can you expect? — was kann man auch anderes erwarten?

    3) (with comp) noch

    better still, do it this way —

    still more ( so) because... — und umso mehr, als..., und umso mehr, weil...

    more serious still or still more serious is... — noch ernster ist...

    worse still,... — schlimmer noch,...

    2. conj
    (und) dennoch III
    n
    Destillierapparat m; (= small distillery) Brennerei f
    * * *
    still1 [stıl]
    A adj (adv obs oder poet stilly)
    1. still, reg(ungs)los, unbeweglich: → keep C 2, stand B 4
    2. still, ruhig, lautlos: → keep C 2
    3. still, leise
    4. ruhig, friedlich, still
    5. still (See etc): → water Bes Redew
    6. still (Mineralwasser etc):
    still wine Stillwein m
    7. still frame (Film, Video) Standbild n
    B s
    1. poet Stille f:
    2. FILM Standfoto n
    C v/t
    1. Geräusche etc zum Schweigen oder Verstummen bringen
    2. jemanden beruhigen, ein Verlangen etc stillen
    D v/i still werden, sich beruhigen
    still2 [stıl]
    A adv
    1. (immer) noch, noch immer, bis jetzt:
    points still unsettled bis jetzt oder noch (immer) ungeklärte Fragen;
    I still can’t believe it ich kann es noch immer nicht glauben;
    the worst is still to come das Schlimmste steht noch bevor
    2. (beim komp) noch, immer:
    better still, … od noch besser, …;
    still higher, higher still noch höher;
    still more so because umso mehr als
    3. auch still and all dennoch, doch
    4. poet oder dial immer, stets
    B konj und doch, dennoch
    still3 [stıl]
    A s
    1. a) Destillierkolben m
    b) Destillierapparat m
    2. → distillery
    B v/t & v/i obs destillieren
    * * *
    I 1. adjective
    1) pred. still

    be still — [still] stehen; [Fahne:] sich nicht bewegen; [Hand:] ruhig sein

    hold or keep something still — etwas ruhig halten

    hold or keep a ladder/horse still — eine Leiter/ein Pferd festhalten

    keep or stay still — stillhalten; (not change posture) ruhig bleiben; [Pferd:] stillstehen; [Gegenstand:] liegen bleiben

    stand still — stillstehen; [Uhr:] stehen; [Arbeit:] ruhen; (stop) stehen bleiben

    2) (calm) ruhig
    3) (without sound) still; ruhig
    4) (not sparkling) nicht moussierend [Wein]; still [Mineralwasser]
    5) (hushed) leise
    2. adverb
    1) (without change) noch; (expr. surprise or annoyance) immer noch

    drink your tea while it is still hot — trink deinen Tee, solange er [noch] heiß ist

    2) (nevertheless) trotzdem

    still, what can you do about it? — aber was kann man dagegen tun?

    3) with comparative (even) noch

    become fatter still or still fatter — noch od. immer dicker werden

    better/worse still — as sentence-modifier besser/schlimmer noch

    3. noun
    (Photog.) Fotografie, die
    II noun
    Destillierapparat, der
    * * *
    adj.
    noch adj.
    ruhig adj.
    still adj.
    unbewegt adj. adv.
    immer noch adv.
    nach wie vor adv. conj.
    dennoch konj.
    doch konj.

    English-german dictionary > still

  • 17 Language

       Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)
       It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)
       It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)
       Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)
       It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)
       [A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]
       Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling it
       Solving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into another
       LANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)
       We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)
       We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.
       The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)
       9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own Language
       The forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)
       It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)
       In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)
       In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)
       [It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)
       he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.
       The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)
       The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.
       But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)
       The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)
        t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)
       A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)
       Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)
       It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)
       First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....
       Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)
       If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)
        23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human Interaction
       Language cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)
       By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)
       Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language

  • 18 stroke

    strəuk
    I noun
    1) (an act of hitting, or the blow given: He felled the tree with one stroke of the axe; the stroke of a whip.) golpe
    2) (a sudden occurrence of something: a stroke of lightning; an unfortunate stroke of fate; What a stroke of luck to find that money!) ocurrencia; golpe (de suerte)
    3) (the sound made by a clock striking the hour: She arrived on the stroke of (= punctually at) ten.) campanada
    4) (a movement or mark made in one direction by a pen, pencil, paintbrush etc: short, even pencil strokes.) (lápiz, bolígrafo) trazo; (pincel) pincelada
    5) (a single pull of an oar in rowing, or a hit with the bat in playing cricket.) (cricket) golpe, jugada; (remo) palada
    6) (a movement of the arms and legs in swimming, or a particular method of swimming: He swam with slow, strong strokes; Can you do breaststroke/backstroke?) brazada
    7) (an effort or action: I haven't done a stroke (of work) all day.) golpe (no dar ni golpe en el trabajo); esfuerzo
    8) (a sudden attack of illness which damages the brain, causing paralysis, loss of feeling in the body etc.) ataque
    •

    II
    1. verb
    (to rub (eg a furry animal) gently and repeatedly in one direction, especially as a sign of affection: He stroked the cat / her hair; The dog loves being stroked.) acariciar

    2. noun
    (an act of stroking: He gave the dog a stroke.)
    stroke1 n
    1. caricia
    2. ataque de apoplejía
    3. brazada
    stroke2 vb acariciar
    tr[strəʊk]
    2 (caress) caricia
    3 SMALLSPORT/SMALL (in tennis, cricket, golf) golpe nombre masculino, jugada; (in billiards) tacada; (in rowing) palada; (in swimming - movement) brazada; (- style) estilo
    4 SMALLSPORT/SMALL (oarsman) cabo
    5 (of pen) trazo; (of brush) pincelada
    6 (of bell) campanada
    7 (of engine) tiempo; (of piston) carrera
    8 SMALLMEDICINE/SMALL ataque nombre masculino de apoplejía, derrame nombre masculino cerebral
    9 (oblique) barra (oblicua)
    1 (caress) acariciar
    2 (ball) dar un golpe a
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    at a/one stroke de (un) golpe, de un plumazo
    to not do a stroke of work no dar golpe, no pegar golpe
    stroke ['stro:k] vt, stroked ; stroking : acariciar
    : golpe m
    a stroke of luck: un golpe de suerte
    n.
    • brazada s.f.
    • caricia s.f.
    • estilo s.m.
    • golpazo s.m.
    • golpe s.m.
    • jugada s.f.
    • palada s.f.
    • plumado s.m.
    • rasgo s.m.
    • raya s.f.
    • recorrido s.m.
    • trazo s.m.
    v.
    • acariciar v.
    • pasar la mano sobre v.

    I strəʊk
    1) ( Sport)
    a) ( in ball games) golpe m
    b) ( in swimming - movement) brazada f; (- style) estilo m
    c) ( in rowing - movement) palada f, remada f

    to put somebody off her/his stroke — hacerle* perder el ritmo (a alguien)

    2)
    a) ( blow) golpe m
    b) ( of piston - motion) tiempo m; (- distance) carrera f
    c) ( of clock) campanada f
    3)
    a) ( of thin brush) pincelada f; ( of thick brush) brochazo m; (of pen, pencil) trazo m

    apply using light, quick strokes — aplicar dando ligeros toques

    b) (oblique, slash) barra f, diagonal f
    4)
    a) (action, feat) golpe m

    at a stroke — de (un) golpe

    not to do a stroke of work — no hacer* absolutamente nada, no dar* or pegar* golpe (fam)

    b) ( instance)
    5) ( Med) ataque m de apoplejía, derrame m cerebral
    6) ( caress) caricia f

    II
    transitive verb ( caress) acariciar
    [strǝʊk]
    1. N
    1) (=blow) golpe m

    • at a or one stroke — de un solo golpe

    • stroke of lightning — rayo m

    2) (fig)

    his greatest stroke was to... — su golpe maestro fue...

    • a stroke of diplomacy — un éxito diplomático

    • he hasn't done a stroke (of work) — no ha dado golpe

    • a stroke of genius — una ocurrencia genial

    • a stroke of luck — un golpe de suerte

    3) (=caress) caricia f
    4) [of pen] trazo m, plumada f ; [of brush] pincelada f ; (Typ) barra f oblicua

    at a stroke of the pen, with one stroke of the pen — de un plumazo

    5) (Cricket, Golf) golpe m, jugada f ; (Billiards) tacada f

    good stroke! — ¡buen golpe!, ¡muy bien!

    to put sb off his/her stroke — (=distract) hacer perder la concentración a algn, distraer a algn

    he tried to put me off my stroke — (Sport) trató de hacerme errar el golpe

    6) (Swimming) (=single movement) brazada f ; (=type of stroke) estilo m
    7) (Rowing) remada f ; (=person) primer(a) remero(-a) m / f

    to row stroke — ser el primer remero, remar en el primer puesto

    8) [of bell, clock] campanada f, toque m

    • on the stroke of 12 — al dar las 12

    9) [of piston] carrera f
    10) (Med) derrame m cerebral, apoplejía f

    • to have a stroke — tener un derrame cerebral, tener un ataque de apoplejía

    2. VT
    1) [+ cat, sb's hair] acariciar; [+ chin] pasar la mano sobre, pasar la mano por
    2) (Rowing)

    • to stroke a boat — ser el primero remero

    * * *

    I [strəʊk]
    1) ( Sport)
    a) ( in ball games) golpe m
    b) ( in swimming - movement) brazada f; (- style) estilo m
    c) ( in rowing - movement) palada f, remada f

    to put somebody off her/his stroke — hacerle* perder el ritmo (a alguien)

    2)
    a) ( blow) golpe m
    b) ( of piston - motion) tiempo m; (- distance) carrera f
    c) ( of clock) campanada f
    3)
    a) ( of thin brush) pincelada f; ( of thick brush) brochazo m; (of pen, pencil) trazo m

    apply using light, quick strokes — aplicar dando ligeros toques

    b) (oblique, slash) barra f, diagonal f
    4)
    a) (action, feat) golpe m

    at a stroke — de (un) golpe

    not to do a stroke of work — no hacer* absolutamente nada, no dar* or pegar* golpe (fam)

    b) ( instance)
    5) ( Med) ataque m de apoplejía, derrame m cerebral
    6) ( caress) caricia f

    II
    transitive verb ( caress) acariciar

    English-spanish dictionary > stroke

  • 19 still

    I
    1. stil adjective
    1) (without movement or noise: The city seems very still in the early morning; Please stand/sit/keep/hold still while I brush your hair!; still (= calm) water/weather.) quieto, inmóvil, parado
    2) ((of drinks) not fizzy: still orange juice.) sin gas

    2. noun
    (a photograph selected from a cinema film: The magazine contained some stills from the new film.) fotograma
    - stillborn
    II stil adverb
    1) (up to and including the present time, or the time mentioned previously: Are you still working for the same firm?; By Saturday he had still not / still hadn't replied to my letter.) aún, todavía
    2) (nevertheless; in spite of that: Although the doctor told him to rest, he still went on working; This picture is not valuable - still, I like it.) a pesar de todo, no obstante, sin embargo
    3) (even: He seemed very ill in the afternoon and in the evening looked still worse.) aún, todavía
    still1 adj
    1. quieto
    keep still estáte quieto / no te muevas
    2. tranquilo / en calma
    3. sin gas / sin burbujas
    still2 adv
    1. todavía / aún
    2. aún así
    he was ill, but he still went to work estaba enfermo, pero aún así fue a trabajar
    tr[stɪl]
    1 (not moving) quieto,-a, inmóvil; (stationary) parado,-a; (water) manso,-a; (air) en calma
    2 (tranquil, calm) tranquilo,-a; (peaceful) sosegado,-a; (subdued) callado,-a, apagado,-a; (silent) silencioso,-a
    3 (not fizzy - water) sin gas; (soft drink) sin burbujas
    1 (so far) todavía, aún
    ■ do they still live in the same house? ¿aún viven en la misma casa?
    2 (even) aún, todavía
    3 (even so, nevertheless) a pesar de todo, con todo, no obstante, sin embargo
    ■ but that still doesn't excuse your behaviour pero aun así, eso no justifica tu comportamiento
    ■ we still love you, no matter what a pesar de todo, te seguimos queriendo
    ■ still, it was worth it no obstante, valía la pena
    4 formal use (besides, yet, in addition) aún, todavía
    5 (quiet, without moving) quieto,-a
    1 literal (calm, silence) silencio, quietud nombre femenino, tranquilidad nombre femenino
    2 SMALLCINEMA/SMALL (photograph) fotograma nombre masculino
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    still waters run deep del agua mansa líbreme Dios
    still life SMALLART/SMALL naturaleza muerta, bodegón nombre masculino
    ————————
    tr[stɪl]
    2 (place) destilería
    still ['stɪl] vt
    calm: pacificar, apaciguar
    still vi
    : pacificarse, apaciguarse
    still adv
    1) quietly: quieto
    sit still!: ¡quédate quieto!
    2) : de todos modos, aún, todavía
    she still lives there: aún vive allí
    it's still the same: sigue siendo lo mismo
    3) in any case: de todos modos, aún así
    he still has doubts: aún así le quedan dudas
    I still prefer that you stay: de todos modos prefiero que te quedes
    still adj
    1) motionless: quieto, inmóvil
    2) silent: callado
    1) silence: quietud f, calma f
    2) : alambique m (para destilar alcohol)
    adj.
    • sin gas (Bebida) expr.
    adj.
    • encharcado, -a adj.
    • inmóvil adj.
    • quedo, -a adj.
    • quieto, -a adj.
    • silencioso, -a adj.
    • tranquilo, -a adj.
    adv.
    • aun adv.
    • aún adv.
    • todavía adv.
    conj.
    • aun conj.
    • sin embargo conj.
    n.
    • alambique s.m.
    • alquitara s.f.
    • destiladera s.f.
    • destilador s.m.
    • destilatorio s.m.
    • silencio s.m.
    v.
    • calmar v.

    I stɪl
    1) (even now, even then) todavía, aún

    there's still plenty left — todavía or aún queda mucho

    they were still dancing — todavía or aún estaban bailando, seguían bailando

    are we still friends? — ¿seguimos siendo amigos?

    2) (as intensifier) aún, todavía

    more serious still, they haven't replied — y lo que es más grave aún or y lo que es todavía más grave, no han contestado

    a) (even so, despite that) aun así

    they say it's safe, but I'm still scared — dicen que no hay peligro pero igual or aun así tengo miedo

    b) ( however) de todos modos

    I don't think it will work; still, we can always try — no creo que funcione; pero bueno, igual podemos intentarlo


    II
    a) ( motionless) <lake/air> en calma, quieto, tranquilo

    sit/stand still — quédate quieto

    b) <orange drink/mineral water> sin gas, no efervescente

    III
    1) c (Cin, Phot) fotograma m
    2) c
    a) ( distillery) destilería f
    b) ( distilling apparatus) alambique m
    3) u ( quiet) (poet)

    IV
    transitive verb \<\<wind/waves\>\> apaciguar*; \<\<fears/cries\>\> acallar

    I [stɪl]
    1. ADJ
    (compar stiller) (superl stillest)
    1) (=motionless) [person, hands] inmóvil, quieto; [air] en calma, manso; [water] quieto, manso

    • try to hold it still — intenta que no se te mueva

    • to keep still — quedarse quieto

    keep still! — ¡no te muevas!, ¡quédate quieto!

    • to lie still, she lay still — estaba tendida sin moverse

    • to sit/ stand still — (lit) estarse quieto

    sit/stand still! — ¡estáte quieto!, ¡quieto!

    2) (=quiet, calm) [place, night] tranquilo, silencioso

    a still, small voice — una voz queda

    3) (=not fizzy) [orange drink, mineral water] sin gas
    2. N
    1) (=quiet)
    2) (Cine) fotograma m
    3. VT
    1) liter (=silence) [+ protest, voice] acallar; (=calm) [+ waves] calmar; [+ storm] calmar, apaciguar
    2) (=allay) [+ doubt, fear] disipar; [+ anger] aplacar
    4.

    the roar of the crowd stilled to an expectant murmur — el rugido de la multitud se apagó hasta convertirse en un murmullo de expectación

    5.
    CPD

    still life N — (Art) naturaleza f muerta, bodegón m

    still-life
    II
    [stɪl]
    ADV
    1) (=up to this/that time) todavía, aún

    she still lives in London — todavía or aún vive en Londres, sigue viviendo en Londres

    I still don't understand — sigo sin entender, todavía or aún no lo entiendo

    you could still change your mind — todavía or aún puedes cambiar de idea

    I was very angry, I still am — estaba muy enfadado, todavía or aún lo estoy

    I've still got three left — todavía or aún me quedan tres

    there are still two more — quedan dos más, todavía or aún quedan dos

    2) (=nevertheless, all the same) aun así, de todas formas

    I didn't win, still, it's been a good experience — no he ganado, pero aun así or de todas formas or con todo, ha sido una buena experiencia

    I'm still going, even if it rains — iré de todas formas, incluso si llueve

    his mother was Canadian, Irish-Canadian, but still Canadian — su madre era canadiense, irlandesa y canadiense, pero con todo or aun así canadiense

    still, it was worth it — pero en fin, valió la pena

    whatever they have done, they are still your parents — a pesar de todo lo que han hecho, siguen siendo tus padres

    3) (=besides, in addition) todavía, aún

    still another possibility would be to... — e incluso otra posibilidad sería...

    4) (with compar) (=even) todavía, aún

    more serious still, still more serious — aún or todavía más grave, más grave aún or todavía

    you need a rest, better still, have a holiday — necesitas un descanso, mejor todavía or aún, tómate unas vacaciones

    worse still, the disease seems to be spreading — (lo que es) peor todavía or aún, la enfermedad parece propagarse

    STILL ► Translate still relating to time using todavía or aún ( with an accent):
    They are still working for the same company Todavía or Aún están trabajando en la misma empresa Both t odavía and aún n ormally come before the verb group in this meaning. ► Alternatively, use seg uir + ((gerund)) (with or without todavía/aún):
    They are still working for the same company Siguen or Todavía siguen or Aún siguen trabajando en la misma empresa ► Still with more, less and other comparatives is normally translated by todavía or aún ( with an accent):
    More important still are the peace talks Todavía or Aún más importantes son las negociaciones de paz
    He lowered his voice still further Bajó la voz todavía or aún más
    Within a couple of weeks matters got still worse Al cabo de dos semanas los problemas empeoraron todavía or aún más NOTE: Whenever it is synonymous with todavía, aún c arries an accent. For further uses and examples, see main entry
    III
    [stɪl]
    N (for alcohol) alambique m
    * * *

    I [stɪl]
    1) (even now, even then) todavía, aún

    there's still plenty left — todavía or aún queda mucho

    they were still dancing — todavía or aún estaban bailando, seguían bailando

    are we still friends? — ¿seguimos siendo amigos?

    2) (as intensifier) aún, todavía

    more serious still, they haven't replied — y lo que es más grave aún or y lo que es todavía más grave, no han contestado

    a) (even so, despite that) aun así

    they say it's safe, but I'm still scared — dicen que no hay peligro pero igual or aun así tengo miedo

    b) ( however) de todos modos

    I don't think it will work; still, we can always try — no creo que funcione; pero bueno, igual podemos intentarlo


    II
    a) ( motionless) <lake/air> en calma, quieto, tranquilo

    sit/stand still — quédate quieto

    b) <orange drink/mineral water> sin gas, no efervescente

    III
    1) c (Cin, Phot) fotograma m
    2) c
    a) ( distillery) destilería f
    b) ( distilling apparatus) alambique m
    3) u ( quiet) (poet)

    IV
    transitive verb \<\<wind/waves\>\> apaciguar*; \<\<fears/cries\>\> acallar

    English-spanish dictionary > still

  • 20 Marey, Etienne-Jules

    [br]
    b. 5 March 1830 Beaune, France
    d. 15 May 1904 Paris, France
    [br]
    French physiologist and pioneer of chronophotography.
    [br]
    At the age of 19 Marey went to Paris to study medicine, becoming particularly interested in the problems of the circulation of the blood. In an early communication to the Académie des Sciences he described a much improved device for recording the pulse, the sphygmograph, in which the beats were recorded on a smoked plate. Most of his subsequent work was concerned with methods of recording movement: to study the movement of the horse, he used pneumatic sensors on each hoof to record traces on a smoked drum; this device became known as the Marey recording tambour. His attempts to study the wing movements of a bird in flight in the same way met with limited success since the recording system interfered with free movement. Reading in 1878 of Muybridge's work in America using sequence photography to study animal movement, Marey considered the use of photography himself. In 1882 he developed an idea first used by the astronomer Janssen: a camera in which a series of exposures could be made on a circular photographic plate. Marey's "photographic gun" was rifle shaped and could expose twelve pictures in approximately one second on a circular plate. With this device he was able to study wing movements of birds in free flight. The camera was limited in that it could record only a small number of images, and in the summer of 1882 he developed a new camera, when the French government gave him a grant to set up a physiological research station on land provided by the Parisian authorities near the Porte d'Auteuil. The new design used a fixed plate, on which a series of images were recorded through a rotating shutter. Looking rather like the results provided by a modern stroboscope flash device, the images were partially superimposed if the subject was slow moving, or separated if it was fast. His human subjects were dressed all in white and moved against a black background. An alternative was to dress the subject in black, with highly reflective strips and points along limbs and at joints, to produce a graphic record of the relationships of the parts of the body during action. A one-second-sweep timing clock was included in the scene to enable the precise interval between exposures to be assessed. The fixed-plate cameras were used with considerable success, but the number of individual records on each plate was still limited. With the appearance of Eastman's Kodak roll-film camera in France in September 1888, Marey designed a new camera to use the long rolls of paper film. He described the new apparatus to the Académie des Sciences on 8 October 1888, and three weeks later showed a band of images taken with it at the rate of 20 per second. This camera and its subsequent improvements were the first true cinematographic cameras. The arrival of Eastman's celluloid film late in 1889 made Marey's camera even more practical, and for over a decade the Physiological Research Station made hundreds of sequence studies of animals and humans in motion, at rates of up to 100 pictures per second. Marey pioneered the scientific study of movement using film cameras, introducing techniques of time-lapse, frame-by-frame and slow-motion analysis, macro-and micro-cinematography, superimposed timing clocks, studies of airflow using smoke streams, and other methods still in use in the 1990s. Appointed Professor of Natural History at the Collège de France in 1870, he headed the Institut Marey founded in 1898 to continue these studies. After Marey's death in 1904, the research continued under the direction of his associate Lucien Bull, who developed many new techniques, notably ultra-high-speed cinematography.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Foreign member of the Royal Society 1898. President, Académie des Sciences 1895.
    Bibliography
    1860–1904, Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris.
    1873, La Machine animale, Paris 1874, Animal Mechanism, London.
    1893, Die Chronophotographie, Berlin. 1894, Le Mouvement, Paris.
    1895, Movement, London.
    1899, La Chronophotographie, Paris.
    Further Reading
    ——1992, Muybridge and the Chronophotographers, London. Jacques Deslandes, 1966, Histoire comparée du cinéma, Vol. I, Paris.
    BC / MG

    Biographical history of technology > Marey, Etienne-Jules

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